Building of the Week: Florence Cathedral, Italy

An artist's conception of the finished cathedral, 1390
Andrea di Bonauito

One of the biggest triumphs of Renaissance architecture as well as one of the most important domed structures in the world, Florence Cathedral (also known as “Il Duomo” and, officially, the Basilica di Santa Maria del Fiore) is the work of history’s most celebrated architects and artists over several centuries.


The jewel in the sparkling crown that is Florence, Italy, the basilica is known for its brilliant multi-colored marble façade, its towering campanile and, especially, its massive octagonal dome. At the center of Florence’s artistic and religious life, the basilica represents some of the most radical thinking in the history of architecture.

Prior to 1296, the site was the home of a different cathedral dedicated to Santa Reparata which had been founded in the early Fifth Century. By the Thirteenth Century, the cathedral had begun to crumble after eight hundred years of use. The need for a new cathedral had become urgent as the population of Florence continued to grow. To make matters worse, Sienna and Pisa had begun new cathedral complexes and Florence was not about to be outdone.

In 1296, Arnolfo di Cambio, the architect of Santa Croce and the Palazzo Vecchio, had been commissioned to design the new structure. He envisioned a wide basilica with a tall octagonal dome. Though he hadn’t quite worked out the mechanics of the enormous dome (such a feat of architecture without the aid of wooden supports hadn’t been attempted since the Pantheon), Arnolfo’s plan was approved and construction began two years later. Sadly, Arnolfo died eight years later.

After Arnolfo’s death in 1302, construction of the cathedral nearly came to a halt for thirty years. His design was complicated and no one was quite sure how to approach the project—especially that pesky dome. In 1330, relics of San Zenobius were discovered in Santa Reparata (which still hadn’t been pulled down and was sitting in the middle of the construction site). This discovery escalated the need for the work on the cathedral to continue so that the increased number of pilgrims visiting the site could be accommodated. Famous architect and artist Giotto took over the project and worked steadily on it until a little trouble hit Italy in the form of the Black Plague in 1348.

Giotto’s death in 1337 meant that his assistant, Andrea Pisano, would have to take over. However, Giotto did manage to complete the campanile and several other structural elements following the original designs of Arnolfo di Cambio.

Several other architects manned the project over the following decades. By 1375, Santa Reparata was finally pulled down. And, by 1418, all but the dome had been completed.

Ah, the dome. That was a problem. How would it stand without wooden supports? How would it be constructed? As was often the practice of the time, a structural design competition was held to see who could complete the dome. The search was narrowed down to two people—both famous names: Filippo Brunelleschi and Lorenzo Ghiberti (who designed the ornamental doors to the Baptistry). Brunelleschi had the support of Cosimo de Medici, so naturally, he was awarded the commission. Work started on the dome in 1420 and took over sixteen years.

The Cathedral in 1880

The dome is constructed of a complicated series of bricks and mortar which is supported by metal and wooden bands within the masonry. A feat of engineering, the dome continues to dominate the skyline of Florence.

Though the cathedral was “open for business,” by the early Fifteenth Century, work continued on the decorative marble façade well into the 1880’s. Similarly, the gorgeous stained glass windows and numerous sculptures were also added over time. Despite the impressive architecture of the basilica, the interior is rather Spartan compared to others of the era—allowing for the building to speak for itself.

Today, Florence Cathedral remains one of the most impressive architectural accomplishments in history. It will forever be a symbol of the ingenuity of the Renaissance and of the arts of Italy. To learn more about Il Duomo, this Web site can offer you a lot of great information. 

Figure of the Day: An Actor, 2nd C. BC

An Actor
Etruscan, Second Century B.C.
The British Museum

Made in Italy in the Second Century B.C., this terracotta figure depicts a comic actor. As was the theatrical style of the time, the actor has donned a mask. This mask is a broad representation of a bald slave. He carries something in his hand, but what? Is it a purse? We’re unsure. The figure was found in Carino, Italy and is an excellent representation of the figural work of our Etruscan forebears.

Mastery of Design: The Shepherds and Goats Signet Ring, 200-100 BC

Intaglio Ring
Italy, 200-100 B.C.
The Victoria & Albert Museum

A vertically-positioned oval intaglio of brown-hued carnelian is the centerpiece of this ancient ring which nicely demonstrates the mastery of early Roman gem carving.

It’s thought that this ring was meant to represent a shepherd. The conclusion makes sense since it depicts a young man with a goat which, I’m guessing, represents his flock. It’s hard to carve a whole flock of goats onto a ring. Don’t let the fact that the young man is nude bother you.

Others suggest that since the fellow has no clothes on, he could be the god Mercury. I don’t know if I’d want to be a shepherd with no pants. So, Mercury is a good guess, too, especially since Mercury’s attribute is often a ram and he does tend to be shown wearing the sort of broad-brimmed hat favored by farmers and travelers.

Either way, the goat’s not too happy. Maybe he doesn’t like the pan flute. Goats probably don’t care for pipe music.

The ring was made in Italy circa 200-100 BC. Of course, it ended up in the collection of the Reverend Chauncy Hare Townshend (1798-1868), who preferred collecting jewelry to being a clergyman. I agree with him wholeheartedly.

Sculpture of the Day: The Coral St. Michael, 1700-1750



The Victoria & Albert Museum


Coral’s softness allows for easy carving and it’s presumed “powers” made it a favorite medium for figurines and jewels assigned talisman properties. Here, we see a statuette in coral of St. Michael. The saint is wearing a feathered helmet and stands upon a dragon, as one does. In his right hand, he carries a sword, presumably to slay said dragon. Since coral was thought to protect against malignant magic, both the design and purpose of this figure seems to be to triumph over evil.

This, like most coral pieces, was made in Italy (Naples) during the early-to-mid Eighteenth Century when the use of coral for decorative purposes was at an all-time high.

History's Runway: The Doge's Corno Ducale, 1675-99

Corno Ducale
1675-1699
Venice, Italy
The Victoria & Albert Museum

For over a thousand years, from 700AD until 1797, the Italian city-state of Venice was ruled over by a chief magistrate who was known as the Doge. The Doge was chosen by a committee comprised of members of the leading aristocratic families of Venice.  This magistrate held the office for the duration of his life.  The Doge, among other perks, was given a special hat.  I think all leaders should have special hats.

The hat that we see here is an example of the “corno ducale,” a ceremonial crown which was worn by the Doge over a cap of fine linen which was known as a “camauro.”

These caps were hand-made by the nuns of the Convent of San Zaccaria.  A new cap was presented to the Doge every Easter Monday, following a procession from San Marco to the convent.  How nice!

This corno ducale dates between 1675 and 1699 and is made of gold silk and metal thread brocade.  The crown of the hat curves up into a smooth vertical protrusion at the back. The whole thing is trimmed with metal braiding.

Sculpture of the Day: A Bust of Ferdinando de’ Medici, c. 1700

Bust of Ferdinando de' Medici
Giovacchino Fortini
circa 1700
The Lady Lever Art Gallery
Liverpool

Prince Ferdinando de’ Medici of Tuscany, like many of the members of this famous Italian family, was a keen patron of the arts with a particular fondness for sculpture. And, like most of the members of his family, he commissioned many portraits of himself from what he considered the best artists in the region.


He certainly got his money’s worth with this portrait bust created by Giovacchino Fortini. Fortini was celebrated for his remarkable ability to render different textures in his marbles. You’ll notice the contrasting textures of Ferdinando’s wig, his fur collar and the smoothness of his armor. De’ Medici was pleased with the bust, and even more so by the inclusion of his emblem (a lightning bolt through clouds) on the armor and his motto on the base. It reads, ET LUCET ET TERRET ('It casts both light and terror”). A fitting motto, indeed. 

Painting of the Day: “Diana and Calisto,” Richard Wilson, 1757

Diana and Calisto
Richard Wilson, 1757
The Lady Lever Art Gallery
Liverpool



Painter Richard Wilson adapted the ideals of French Seventeenth Century landscape painting into his canvases which were celebrated for their majesty and tranquility. Here, Wilson depicts a landscape of Lake Nemi in Italy, not far from Rome. Lake Nemi long had an association with the goddess Diana. Diana was said to have seen her reflection in the still lake, and a temple was erected at the spot in her honor.


Wilson alludes to the goddess by including a small figural scene of Diana casting her maid, Calisto, out after discovering the young woman’s pregnancy by Zeus. The figural scene is secondary to the grandeur of the landscape which was applauded wildly when exhibited.

Mastery of Design: The Shepherds and Goats Signet Ring, 200-100 BC

Intaglio Ring
Italy, 200-100 B.C.
The Victoria & Albert Museum

A vertically-positioned oval intaglio of brown-hued carnelian is the centerpiece of this ancient ring which nicely demonstrates the mastery of early Roman gem carving.

It’s thought that this ring was meant to represent a shepherd. The conclusion makes sense since it depicts a young man with a goat which, I’m guessing, represents his flock. It’s hard to carve a whole flock of goats onto a ring. Don’t let the fact that the young man is nude bother you.

Others suggest that since the fellow has no clothes on, he could be the god Mercury. I don’t know if I’d want to be a shepherd with no pants. So, Mercury is a good guess, too, especially since Mercury’s attribute is often a ram and he does tend to be shown wearing the sort of broad-brimmed hat favored by farmers and travelers.

Either way, the goat’s not too happy. Maybe he doesn’t like the pan flute. Goats probably don’t care for pipe music.

The ring was made in Italy circa 200-100 BC. Of course, it ended up in the collection of the Reverend Chauncy Hare Townshend (1798-1868), who preferred collecting jewelry to being a clergyman. I agree with him wholeheartedly.

Unusual Artifacts: The Martin Nautilus Shell Cup, 1770

Cup
Jean Martin, 1770
Poland with Cameos made in Italy
The Victoria & Albert Museum

Portions of this elegant and monumental cup were made in Warsaw Poland while much of its adornment comes from pieces which were the handiwork of Italian craftsmen.  Made around 1770, this cup of a nautilus shell set in gold with onyx, chalcedony, agate, shell and glass cameos, nicely demonstrates the Neoclassical appreciation for engraved gems.

Many of the gems which grace this piece are Italian copies of then-famous carved stones and cameos.  The cup was made for the last king of Poland, Stanislaus Augustus. The central intaglio on the shell is an Italian copy in blue glass of Diomedes stealing the palladium.  The original version of this stone is called “The Felix Gem.”  It lives in the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford, Ebgland.

The base and cover of this important cup are decorated with mother-of-pearl. It is signed “J.MARTIN FAIT A VARSOVIELE 26 AOUT 1770.”

The commission of this cup marks one of the earliest times that the celebrated Jean Martin worked for King Stanislaus Augustus (1769-1791) as Court Jeweler in Warsaw.  Martin remained in this position between 1769 and 1791.  The cups creation is recorded in the royal accounts as having been ordered in 1770 and states that it was designed purely as a vehicle for displaying cameos as opposed to an object intended for practical use.  

Gifts of Grandeur: A Set of Micromosaic Studs and Buttons, c. 1850

Micromosaic Buttons
Italy, c. 1850
This and all related images from the Victoria & Albert Museum

An English gentleman of the 1850s would have reserved a decorative set of buttons and studs such as these for evening wear.  This set, containing ten buttons and two studs, would have adorned his waistcoat and shirt.  The double-breasted style which was the fashion of the time would have required this number.  The two studs were employed to secure the front of the short which would have been visible above the waistcoat.

This particular suite is part of the collection of micromosaic jewelry which was bequeathed to the V&A by Sir Arthur Gilbert and his wife Rosalinde.  The buttons each show Roman monuments surrounded by frames of black glass.  They were made in the Vatican Mosaic Workshop in Rome.  

Building of the Week: Florence Cathedral, Italy

An artist's conception of the finished cathedral, 1390
Andrea di Bonauito

One of the biggest triumphs of Renaissance architecture as well as one of the most important domed structures in the world, Florence Cathedral (also known as “Il Duomo” and, officially, the Basilica di Santa Maria del Fiore) is the work of history’s most celebrated architects and artists over several centuries.


The jewel in the sparkling crown that is Florence, Italy, the basilica is known for its brilliant multi-colored marble façade, its towering campanile and, especially, its massive octagonal dome. At the center of Florence’s artistic and religious life, the basilica represents some of the most radical thinking in the history of architecture.

Prior to 1296, the site was the home of a different cathedral dedicated to Santa Reparata which had been founded in the early Fifth Century. By the Thirteenth Century, the cathedral had begun to crumble after eight hundred years of use. The need for a new cathedral had become urgent as the population of Florence continued to grow. To make matters worse, Sienna and Pisa had begun new cathedral complexes and Florence was not about to be outdone.

In 1296, Arnolfo di Cambio, the architect of Santa Croce and the Palazzo Vecchio, had been commissioned to design the new structure. He envisioned a wide basilica with a tall octagonal dome. Though he hadn’t quite worked out the mechanics of the enormous dome (such a feat of architecture without the aid of wooden supports hadn’t been attempted since the Pantheon), Arnolfo’s plan was approved and construction began two years later. Sadly, Arnolfo died eight years later.

After Arnolfo’s death in 1302, construction of the cathedral nearly came to a halt for thirty years. His design was complicated and no one was quite sure how to approach the project—especially that pesky dome. In 1330, relics of San Zenobius were discovered in Santa Reparata (which still hadn’t been pulled down and was sitting in the middle of the construction site). This discovery escalated the need for the work on the cathedral to continue so that the increased number of pilgrims visiting the site could be accommodated. Famous architect and artist Giotto took over the project and worked steadily on it until a little trouble hit Italy in the form of the Black Plague in 1348.

Giotto’s death in 1337 meant that his assistant, Andrea Pisano, would have to take over. However, Giotto did manage to complete the campanile and several other structural elements following the original designs of Arnolfo di Cambio.

Several other architects manned the project over the following decades. By 1375, Santa Reparata was finally pulled down. And, by 1418, all but the dome had been completed.

Ah, the dome. That was a problem. How would it stand without wooden supports? How would it be constructed? As was often the practice of the time, a structural design competition was held to see who could complete the dome. The search was narrowed down to two people—both famous names: Filippo Brunelleschi and Lorenzo Ghiberti (who designed the ornamental doors to the Baptistry). Brunelleschi had the support of Cosimo de Medici, so naturally, he was awarded the commission. Work started on the dome in 1420 and took over sixteen years.

The Cathedral in 1880

The dome is constructed of a complicated series of bricks and mortar which is supported by metal and wooden bands within the masonry. A feat of engineering, the dome continues to dominate the skyline of Florence.

Though the cathedral was “open for business,” by the early Fifteenth Century, work continued on the decorative marble façade well into the 1880’s. Similarly, the gorgeous stained glass windows and numerous sculptures were also added over time. Despite the impressive architecture of the basilica, the interior is rather Spartan compared to others of the era—allowing for the building to speak for itself.

Today, Florence Cathedral remains one of the most impressive architectural accomplishments in history. It will forever be a symbol of the ingenuity of the Renaissance and of the arts of Italy. To learn more about Il Duomo, this Web site can offer you a lot of great information. 

Sculpture of the Day: The Commedia dell'Arte Doctor, 1850

The Doctor
Italy, c. 1850
The Victoria & Albert Museum

Here, we see a glazed figurine which depicts a grey-mustached Commedia dell'Arte character, most likely the Doctor. He has donned an elongated, brimmed maroon hat, a cream neck ruff, a black doublet and hose, with a black cape that is lined in yellow. He takes a foppish stance, with his left hand on his waist, and his right hand at his side. He is holding a roll of documents. His pedestal is decorated with two comedy masks and very rococo style shell-like patterns.


This figurine was probably manufactured in the second half of the Nineteenth Century, and is one of a set representing various characters from the Italian the Commedia dell'Arte. The Doctor, or Dottore, was traditionally portrayed as a pompous scholar from Bologna, and was essentially an academic version of the greedy Pantalone. He spoke in a haughty manner peppered with malapropisms and gibberish. This stock character was adopted into the Punch & Judy tradition and remains a part of the mythology of Mr. Punch to this day.

Building of the Week: The Teatro Massimo, Palermo, Italy

"Il Massimo"

You are familiar with Palermo’s grand Belle Époque theater though you may not be aware of it. Anyone who has seen The Godfather III will recognize the soaring opera house from the film’s final, tragic scenes. The second largest opera house in Italy and the third largest in Europe, the Teatro Massimo was dedicated to Italian King Victor Emanuel II who had expressed a desire to see a large-scale opulent opera house constructed for that region. 

In 1864, The Palermo Council sponsored a contest wherein local architects and designers were encouraged to submit their ideas for the new opera house. The design of popular architect Giovan Battista Filippo Basile was selected. Construction began in 1874, ten years after the initial selection of a design. Basile oversaw the construction of the edifice until his death in 1891. Following his death, Basile’s son, Ernesto Basile, a talented designer in his own right, inherited his father’s responsibilities.

The contracting firm, Rutelli & Marchi handled the construction of the building. Rutelli and Marchi developed a host of ingenious ways to safely construct the building’s inner-structure and to install the myriad exterior and interior ornaments such as monumental columns and stonework.

The exterior of the building is punctuated by a gorgeous dome reminiscent of the Pantheon. With its Classical façade marked by a magnificent pediment and Corinthian columns, the Teatro Massimo elicits thoughts of traditional Roman architecture which are heightened by decidedly Belle Époque adornments. Giusto Liva sculpted the exceptional busts of famous composers which line the exterior of the building. 

“Il Massimo” was due to be renovated in 1974. The plan was to quickly update the theater’s safety features and to restore the beauty of the original 1874 plan. Sadly, due to politics and financial concerns, the opera house remained closed for twenty-three years. Finally, it reopened in 1997 to much fanfare.

Still thought to have the best acoustics of any opera house in Europe, “Il Massimo” enjoys a flourishing opera season and once again welcomes people from around the world who have come to experience an evening of beauty. Its majestic proscenium and vivid frescoes once again create the perfect backdrop for the comedy and drama which continue to shape our collective culture.